ABSTRACT
Background: In medical practice, a team approach becomes more important, so a shared awareness of the ethical viewpoint is demanded. Aims & Objective: The present study was conducted to clarify problem points in the evaluation of ethical awareness of medical specialists via the national exams. Material and Methods: This study focused on national board exams for physicians, pharmacists, and speech therapists (STs), specifically targeting the problems posed to exam takers by the 2007 national exams in Japan. Seven researchers first extracted from the exams what were referred to as “ethical problems,” and then they categorized these problems by forms and contents. Results: The percentages of ethical problems were 5.8% for the physicians’ exam, 3.8% for the pharmacists’ exam, and 1.0% for the STs’ exam. The results showed that the exams for physicians, compared to other specialists, contained a greater number of ethical problems and the proportion of ethical problems is also relatively large for the physicians’ exam. Moreover, in terms of taxonomy, problems posed to physicians not only elicited acquired knowledge but also required the exam taker to make decisions about specific cases. These ethical problems vary in forms and contents among the three exams. Conclusion: The results suggest that standardized criteria are necessary for national exams to raise a shared awareness of the ethical viewpoint among medical specialists.
ABSTRACT
AIM: To clarify sex and seasonal variations of plasma antioxidant concentrations among middle-aged Japanese. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: We investigated sex and seasonal variations of plasma antioxidant concentrations, including retinol, alpha-tocopherol, and carotenoids (alpha-carotene, beta-carotene, beta-cryptoxanthin, lutein and lycopene), in 55 middle-aged dietitians (46 women and 9 men) in Aichi Prefecture, Central Japan, who took no supplements from autumn 1996 to summer 1997. Reversed-phase high performance liquid chromatography was used to measure plasma antioxidant concentrations in overnight-fasting blood samples. RESULTS: Plasma levels of alpha-tocopherol, alpha-/beta-carotene, b-cryptoxanthin and lutein were significantly influenced by sex, being significantly higher for women than men in each corresponding season; retinol and lycopene, however, showed no such difference. For women, winter values of alpha-tocopherol, alpha-/beta-carotene, lutein and lycopene were significantly lower than corresponding summer values, and had reached their annual lowest. Retinol failed to show any significant seasonal variation, whereas the winter value of beta-cryptoxanthin had reached its annual highest. For men, beta-cryptoxanthin exhibited significant seasonal changes and was also highest in winter. Winter values of alpha-tocopherol, alpha-/beta-carotene and lycopene were lower compared with other seasons, but not statistically significant, probably due to the small sample size. CONCLUSIONS: The findings indicate that sex and seasonal variations of plasma antioxidant concentrations should be taken into account in nutritional epidemiologic studies.